【摘要】 本文有助于研究特定國(guó)家投資者在非洲投資的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知差異這一金融研究。在本文中,將對(duì)比分別為中國(guó)和荷蘭的政策性銀行和機(jī)構(gòu)進(jìn)行非洲投資的中國(guó)與荷蘭投資者的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知�，F(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)指出,中西方投資者對(duì)各種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的認(rèn)識(shí)不同。然而在中國(guó)與荷蘭投資者在非洲市場(chǎng)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知方面,沒(méi)有結(jié)論性研究。筆者通過(guò)調(diào)查結(jié)果的數(shù)據(jù)分析,研究了中國(guó)與荷蘭的金融機(jī)構(gòu)投資者在非洲進(jìn)行投資時(shí),在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知上有何不同。來(lái)自四個(gè)不同金融機(jī)構(gòu)的18名荷蘭投資者和15名中國(guó)投資者在利式態(tài)度量表上排列了26種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。通過(guò)下面的分布擬合法,兩個(gè)樣本均按重要程度排列這些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。結(jié)果顯示,盡管兩個(gè)樣本的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知具有各種相似性,在重要風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的排列上存在本質(zhì)上的不同。中國(guó)投資者認(rèn)為政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn),例如沖突、政府的穩(wěn)定性和官僚素質(zhì)以及民族信仰矛盾等非常重要。荷蘭投資者則認(rèn)為項(xiàng)目風(fēng)險(xiǎn)、企業(yè)管理、金融項(xiàng)目風(fēng)險(xiǎn)以及環(huán)境和社會(huì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)很重要。兩個(gè)樣本在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知上的相似性有：都認(rèn)為腐敗風(fēng)險(xiǎn)一般重要,環(huán)境和社會(huì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)很重要,國(guó)家的經(jīng)濟(jì)和金融風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不太重要。研究表明,基于對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知存在相似性,在非洲市場(chǎng)的合作具有共同基礎(chǔ)。
 
【關(guān)鍵詞】 風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知； 中國(guó)； 荷蘭； 外國(guó)直接投資； 非洲；

Chapter 1: Introduction

1 . 1 Issue Indication

In the light of its past thirty years fast economic development and opening up process, theeconomic policies of the People Republic of China are increasingly attracting the interest fromscholars and policymakers. From a neglectable amount of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) at thetime Deng Xiaoping initiated the opening up policies in 1978, the investments in China haveincreased to USD 105.7 billion in 2010 (World Bank Data). Outward Foreign Direct Investment(OFDI) on the other hand, has received much less attention as it is significantly smaller thanChina's inward FDI. The inflow and outflow ratio was 6.4 to 1 in 2005 (United Nations, 2005).However, since the start of the twenty first century, China's OFDI has been playing a bigger role.During the period of 1994-1999, China's outward investment reached an annual average levelof USD 2.2 billion, and accounted for 3.4 percent of outflows from developing countries. In2005, it jumped fivefold to 11.3 billion and accounted for 9.6 percent of outflows fromdeveloping countries (Cheung & Qian, The Empirics of China's Outward Direct Investment,2008). Combining this trend with its trade surplus, China is expected to become an increasinglyimportant player in the international capital market.

China's expansion is global, but its substantial investments in Africa have particularly led tosome debate. Scholars and policymakers disagree whether China's engagements in Africashould be celebrated or feared. Many question the motives underlying the investments andtheir implications for Africa's political and economic development (Brookes, 2007) (Manji &Marks, 2007). The model underlying China's activities in Africa is often referred to as "theBeijing consensus" (Rano, 2004), which Is China's answer to "the Washington consensus"(Williamson, 2002). A comparison of the models shows that the approaches to Africa aresubstantially different. Many academia have argued that the determinants of investment flowsgoing from China to Africa deviate from that of the Western countries (Cheung, de Haan, Qian,& Yu, 2011), (Asiedu, Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: The role of Natural Resources, MarketSize, Government Policy, Institutions and Political Instability, 2006)； (Cheung & Qian, TheEmpirics of China's Outward Direct Investment, 2008). Differences in risk perceptions ofinvestors coming from different cultural backgrounds can be an underlying reason explainingthe variation in determinants. This thesis will focus on the risk perception of Chinese and Dutchinstitutions policy banks when investing in Africa. Hence, it is a comparative study.

Literature on risk perceptions describes if, how, and why risk perceptions differ among people.Analyzing risks of a potential investment is a complex matter to deal with, and includesobjective as well as subjective factors. Many scholars have found thatrisk perceptions differamong people from various cultural backgrounds (R. de Camprieu, J. Desbiens, and Y. Feique(2007), N.M. Ashkanasy and C.P. Wilderom (2000), and G. Hofstede(1984). As part of theirCultural Theory of Risk, Mary Douglas and Aaron Wildavsky put forward that 'the role ofcultural ways of life in determining what states of affairs individuals see as worthy of takingrisks' cannot be ignored.

1.2 Issue Statement

In order to answer the aforementioned problem, the following problem statement is formulated:

"To what extent and in which way do risk perceptions of Dutch and Chinese policy banks differwhen they are seeking to invest in Africa?"

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The objective of the literature review is threefold. Firstly, a good understanding of the situationthat the participants of this study find themselves in has to be created, so that the data analysisis placed in a better context. Secondly, ideas of other scholars have to be discussed so aconceptual framework can be build. Therefore, this chapter starts to discuss FDI in Africa；zooming in on Chinese and Dutch FDI in the region. Next, risk factors and perceptions aredescribed.

2,1 FDI in Africa

We are determined to help Africa to develop and to play its full part in the global economy. Toachieve this, it is essential to mobilize private capital flows as well as to reverse the shamefuldecline in official development aid. We are particularly concerned to help promote investment —domestic as well as foreign- as a means of strengthening the supply side of the Africaneconomy' (Kofi Annan, 1999).

Kofi Annan expressed a trend that has been observed over the last years. Private capital andinvestments play a critical role in accelerating economic growth and development in Africa. Inaddition to being a significant source of long-term capital for infrastructure and otherdevelopments investments； FDI also stimulates job creation； skills, technology and knowledgetransfer, development of local suppliers and works as a catalyst for economic diversification(Ernst & Young, 2011). Generally, Africa is and has been perceived to be a risky continent toinvest in. Unstable governments, corruption and weak institutions are deterring FDI and arebelieved to be some of the reasons that Africa attracts less FDI than other developing areas.Ernst & Young's Africa attractiveness survey found that African and other emerging marketsinvestors share optimism about the trend of Africa's investment attractiveness, whiledeveloped nations feel that Africa's progress is in decline.

Since 1970, FDl in Africa have increased from a yearly average of USD 1.9 billion in 1983-1987to USD 6.0 billion in 1993-1997 (UNCTAD F. d.). In the period from 2000 to 2006； the amountsof FDl have again increasedcompared to the 1990-1996 period (The Africa Study Centre, 2008).Although more attention is focused on Africa investments and FDl is increasingly flowing to thecontinent it still accounts for only 5 percent of global FDL Compared to other developingcountries, FDl into Africa increased much less during these years. In the last decades； theregulatory frameworks for FDl have improved in Africa, through for example providing tax andother incentives for foreign investors. Other factors of the investment climate, such as the ruleof law, legal and other institutions, telecommunications, infrastructure and trade liberalizationare found to have improved as well (World Economic Forum, 1998).

Traditionally, few OECD countries such as France, Germany, the United States and the UnitedKingdom accounted most of total investments coming from this organization. Since thebeginning of the 1990s, Italy, Canada and the Netherlands have emerged as important sourcesof FDl in Africa. Other new investors include South Asian investors, among which the newlyindustrialized countries specifically (Odenthal & Zimny, 1999). During the 1986-1990 period,82.4 percent of FDl flowing to Africa came from developed countries. This percentage hasdecreased to 68 percent in the years 2002/2003. The developing countries accounted for 17.5and 27 percent respectively, while the contribution of Central and Eastern Europe alsoincreased from 0.1 to 5.0 percent (UNCTAD, 2003). As of 2010, developed countries stillrepresent the largest share of FDl inflow into the region.

2.2 Risk Factors

2.2.1 Introduction

Traditionally, nsk is believed to be one of the major factors deterring international capital flowsto Africa (Cheung, de Haan, Qian, & Yu, 2011). Much research has been done to assess whichrisks are specifically significant when investing in Africa. This section discusses the existingliterature on this topic, which will provide a basis for the conceptual framework of the primaryresearch of this thesis. Existing literature on the risks of investments in Africa cover both globalconcerns as well as China specific concerns. Attempts to address the differences have beenmade, but comparative studies have only scarcely been conducted. Firstly the literature on riskfactors as perceived by worldwide investors and institutions will be discussed. Following, anoverview of the literature on China specific risk perceptions when investing in Africa will begiven and discussed.

2.2.2 Global risk perceptions

Elizabeth Asiedu (2006) focused on factors influencing FDI flowing to Sub-Saharan Africa andfound (a.o.) that corruption and political instability have negative effects on investments, whilelow inflation and an efficient legal system promote FDI. These conclusions are based on ICRGdata； which provides a framework for country risks and there relative importance. Asiedu didnot take into account that risk perceptions among countries and cultures can differ but solelyfocused on to which countries FDI is flowing and what the characteristics (main risk) are ofthose countries. Significant correlation was found for the above mentioned risks. Four surveys,namely the World Business Environment (1999/2000), World Development Report (1996/1997),World Investment Report (1999/2000) and The Centre for Research into Economics and Financein Southern Africa have assessed factors that constrain FDI into Africa, Two major conclusionsrelevant for this thesis can be drawn from these surveys. All four surveys find that corruption isa major obstacle for FDI flowing into Africa. Furthermore, macro economic instability, includinginflation and exchange rate risk, and political instability are strong deterrents to FDI to Africa.Rogoff and Reinhart (2003) found that internal and external conflicts (i.e. wars) are much morelikely to occur in Africa than in other regions. The regional susceptibility to war index is 26.3%for Africa compared to 9.9% for the Western world. Furthermore, they found correlationbetween conflicts in Africa and FDf flowing to Africa. Onyeiwu and Shrestha (2004) confirm thesurvey results on macroeconomic instability. Their data suggests that high inflation and FDI arenegatively correlated. J.M.Luiz and H. Charalambous (2009) investigated the key elements thatSouth African financial services firms consider before directing FDI in Sub-Saharan Africanmarkets. Their findings based on semi-structured interview surveys suggest that countrygovernance and political risk (including corruption) and the economic environment and macro-economic performance of African countries are (a.o) the most important risk factors to takeinto account when investing in SSA.

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